Populist Radical Right And Islamophobia in Europe: The Case of Vox in Spain
Keywords:
Populist Radical Right, Islamophobia, Muslims, Europe, Vox, Discourse analysisCopyright (c) 2024 Sonsoles Dieste-Muñoz, Eduardo Tena Sanz
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Abstract
This paper analyzes the discourse of the political formation Vox and tries to determine whether it can be described as Islamophobic. With this purpose, the main Vox campaign meetings in the December 2019 general elections and the February 2021 Catalan autonomous elections have been analysed. Allusions related to immigration and islam in Vox's discourse have been identified and classified into the following three dimensions: economic threats, securitarian threats and cultural threats. The study conclusions have allowed us to confirm the presence of the islamophobic content in Vox's discourse.
Downloads
References
ABBAS, Tahir (2019): Islamophobia and Radicalisation, Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190083410.001.0001
AFFAYA, Noureddine y GUERRAOUI, Driss (2005): La imagen de España en Marruecos, Bellaterra.
ALLEN, Chris (2005): Islamophobia?: contested concept in the public space (dissertation). University of Birmingham.
ALLEN, Chris (2010): “An Overview of Key Islamophobia Research”, National Association of Muslim Police.
ALLEN, Trevor J. (2015): “All in the party family? Comparing far right voters in Western and Post-Communist Europe”, Party Politics, nº 23 (3). http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1354068815593457
ALONSO, Sonia y ROVIRA, Cristóbal (2015): “Spain: No Country for the Populist Radical Right?”, South European Society and Politics, nº 20 (1), pp.21-45. https://doi.org/10.1080/13608746.2014.985448
ARANGO, Joaquín (2013): “Exceptional in Europe? Spain’s Experience with Immigration and Integration”, Migration Policy Institute, Washington D.C.
AWAN, Imran y ZEMPI, Irene (2020): “A Working Definition of Islamophobia”, Briefing Paper prepared For the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, Human Rights Council.
AZIZ, Sahar F. (2022): “The Racial Muslim. When Racism Quashes Religious Freedom”, ReOrient, nº 7 (2), pp. 225-228. https://doi.org/10.13169/reorient.7.2.0225
BALIBAR, Étienne (1991): “¿Existe un neorracismo?” en BALIBAR, Étienne y WALLERSTEIN, Immanuel: Raza, nación y clase, Madrid, Iepala.
BALLESTER RODRÍGUEZ, Mateo (2021): “Vox y el uso de la historia: el relato del pasado remoto de España como instrumento político”, Política y Sociedad, vol. 58, nº 2. https://doi.org/10.5209/poso.69692
BAKALI, Naved y HAFEZ, Farid (2022): The rise of global Islamophobia in the War on Terror, Manchester University Press. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526161765
BARKER, Martin (1981): New Racism: Conservatives and the Ideology of the Tribe, London, Junction Books.
BATALLA, Pablo (2021): Los nuevos odres del nacionalismo español, Trea
BETZ, Hans-Georg (1993): “The New Politics of Resentment: Radical Right-Wing Populist Parties in Western Europe”, Comparative Politics, nº 25 (4), pp. 413-427. https://doi.org/10.2307/422034
BETZ, Hans-Georg (2018): “The Radical Right and Populism” en RYDGREN, Jens (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right, Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190274559.013.5
BETZ, Hans-Georg (2019): “Facets of nativism: a heuristic exploration”, Patterns of Prejudice, nº 53 (2), pp. 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2019.1572276
BHATTI, Tabetha (2021): Defining Islamophobia: A Contemporary Understanding of How Expressions of Muslimness are Targetted, London, Muslim Council of Britain.
BOUREKBA, Moussa (2020): “La extrema derecha violenta y el yihadismo comparten una misma cosmovisión”. Disponible en web: https://www.lamarea.com/2020/07/03/extrema-derecha-violenta-y-yihadismo-comparten-cosmovision/ [Consulta: 31 de enero de 2023]
BRAVO LÓPEZ, Fernando (2009): Islamofobia y antisemitismo: La construcción discursiva de las amenazas islamica y judía, Tesis, Madrid, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
BRAVO LÓPEZ, Fernando (2012): En casa ajena. Bases intelectuales del antisemitismo y la islamofobia, Barcelona, Edicions Bellaterra.
CASALS, Xavier (1999): “La ultraderecha española. Una presencia ausente (1975-1999)”, Historia y Política: Ideas, procesos y movimientos sociales, nº 3, pp. 147-174.
CASALS, Xavier (2003): Ultrapatriotas. Extrema derecha y nacionalismo de la guerra fría a la era de la globalización, Barcelona, Crítica.
CASALS, Xavier (2009): “La Plataforma per Catalunya: la eclosión de un nacional-populismo catalán (2003-2009)”, Working Paper, nº 274, Institut de Ciències Politiques i Socials.
CASTRO MARTÍNEZ, Paloma y MO GROBA, Diego (2020): “El issue de la inmigración en los votantes de VOX en las Elecciones Generales de noviembre de 2019”, Revista de Investigaciones Políticas y Sociológicas, nº 19 (1). http://dx.doi.org/10.15304/rips.19.1.6947
CEA D’ANCONA, María Ángeles y VALLES MARTÍNEZ, Miguel S. (2014): “Evolución del racismo, la xenofobia y otras formas conexas de intolerancia en España”, Informe-Encuesta 2014 para el Ministerio de Empleo y Seguridad Social.
CERVI, Laura (2020): “Exclusionary Populism and Islamophobia: A Comparative Analysis of Italy and Spain”, Religions, nº 10 (11), pp. 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11100516
CRESWELL, John W. y PLANO CLARK, Vicky L. (2007): Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research, Thousand Oaks, Sage.
CRESWELL, John W. (2009): Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches, Sage.
DAWES, Simon (2021): “Islamophobia, racialisation and the ‘Muslim problem’ in France”, French Cultural Studies, nº 32 (3), pp. 179-186. https://doi.org/10.1177/09571558211028202
DIESTE MUÑOZ, Sonsoles y TENA SANZ, Eduardo (2022): “Derecha radical populista e islamofobia en Europa. La instrumentalización del liberalismo político”, en DIESTE MUÑOZ, Sonsoles y TENA SANZ, Eduardo (eds.): La derecha radical europea en la actualidad. Discurso de odio e islamofobia, Valencia, Tirant Lo Blanch.
EJIOFOR, Promise Frank (2023): “Decolonising Islamophobia”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, nº 46 (13), pp. 2863-2892. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2023.2181670
ELAHI, Farah y KHAN, Omar (2017): Islamophobia: Still a challenge for us all, Runnymede Trust
FARRIS, Sara R. (2012): “Femonationalism and the “Regular” Army of Labor Called Migrant Women”, History of the Present, 2(2), pp. 184-199. https://doi.org/10.5406/historypresent.2.2.0184
FARRIS, Sara R. (2017): In the Name of Women’s Rights: The Rise of Femonationalism, Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822372929
FELDMAN, Matthew y STOCKER, Paul (2019): “Far-right Islamophobia. From ideology to “mainstreamed” hate crimes”, en ZEMPI, Irene y AWAN, Imran (eds.): The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia, London, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351135559-29
FENNEMA, Meindert (1997): “Some Conceptual Issues and Problems in the Comparison of Anti-Immigrant Parties in Western Europe”, Party Politics, nº 3 (4). https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068897003004002
FERREIRA, Carles (2019): “Vox como representante de la derecha radical en España: un estudio sobre su ideología”, Revista Española de Ciencia Política, nº 51, pp. 73-98. http://dx.doi.org/10.21308/recp.51.03
GANESH, Bharath et al. (2024): “Flows and modalities of global Islamophobia”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, nº 47 (5), pp. 895-906. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2023.2268192
GARCÍA SANJUAN, Alejandro (2016): La conquista islámica de la península ibérica y la tergiversación del pasado. Del catastrofismo al negacionismo. Marcial Pons Ediciones de Historia
GARNER, Steve y SELOD, Saher (2015): “The Racialization of Muslims: Empirical Studies of Islamophobia”, Critical Sociology, nº 41 (1), pp. 9-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920514531606
GEISSER, Vincent (2003): La nouvelle islamophobie, Paris, La Découverte.
GIBSON, Rachel, MCALLISTER, Ian y SWENSON, Tami (2002): “The politics of race and immigration in Australia: One Nation voting in the 1998 Election”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, nº 25 (5), pp. 823-844. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0141987022000000286
GLICK SCHILLER, Nina (2005): “Racialized nations, evangelizing Christianity, police states, and imperial power: Missing in action in Bunzl’s new Europe”, American Ethnologist, nº4, pp. 526-532. https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.2005.32.4.526
GOULD, Robert (2017): “Islam Returns to Spain: Religious Diversity, Political Discourse and Women’s Rights” en ANDRE, Virginie y PRATT, Douglas: Religious Citizenships and Islamophobia, London, Routledge.
GOULD, Robert (2019): “Vox España and Alternative für Deutschland: Propagating the Crisis of National Identity”, Genealogy, nº 3 (64), pp. 1-25. https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy3040064
GREEN, Julie et al. (2007): “Generating best evidence from qualitative research: the role of data analysis”, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, nº 31 (6), pp. 545-550. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-6405.2007.00141.x
GREEN, Todd H. (2015): The Fear of Islam: An Introduction to Islamophobia in the West, 1517 Media. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt12878h3
GRILLO, Ralph (1998): Pluralism and the politics of difference: state, culture and ethnicity in comparative perspective, Oxford, Clarendon Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0198294263.001.0001
GUERRERO ENTERRÍA, Arturo (2009): “Islamofobia como recurso político: El caso Pro-Köln (Pro-NRW)”, Revista de Estudios Internacionales Mediterráneos, nº 6, pp. 107-112. https://doi.org/10.15366/reim2008.6.005
HAFEZ, Kai (2014): Islam in Liberal Europe: Freedom, Equality, and Intolerance, Rowman & Littlefield. https://doi.org/10.5771/9781442229525
HAFEZ, Kai (2014): “Shifting borders: Islamophobia as common ground for building pan-European right-wing unity”, Patterns of Prejudice, nº 48 (5), pp. 479-499. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2014.965877
HALLIDAY, Fred (1999): “'Islamophobia' reconsidered”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, nº 22 (5), pp. 892-902. https://doi.org/10.1080/014198799329305
HERNÁNDEZ-CARR, Aitor (2012): La irrupción de la nueva extrema derecha en España: un análisis de la trayectoria, estrategia política y base electoral de Plataforma per Catalunya, Tesis doctoral, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona.
INTROVIGNE, Massimo (2021): “Ivan Agueli, a painter against Islamophobia”, Fundación de Cultura Islámica.
JANSEN, Yolande y MEER, Nasar (2020): “Genealogies of ‘Jews’ and ‘Muslims’: social imaginaries in the race-religion nexus”, Patterns of Prejudice, nº 54 (1-2), pp. 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2019.1696046
JONES, Veronica (2017): “The racialization of Arab panethnic identity: exploring students’ ingroup and outgroup social positionings”, Race Ethnicity and Education, nº 20 (6), pp. 811-828. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2017.1294563
KALLIS, Aristotle (2018): “The radical right and Islamophobia”, en RYDGREN, Jens (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right, Oxford, Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190274559.013.3
KALLIS, Aristotle (2019): “Islamophobia and the radical right: nostalgia or anti-utopia?” en ZEMPI, Irene y AWAN, Imran: The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia, Abingdon, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351135559-30
KAYA, Ayhan y TECMEN, Ayse (2019): “Europe versus Islam?: Right-Wing Populist Discourse and the Construction of a Civilizational Identity”, The Review of Faith & International Affairs, nº 17 (1), pp. 49-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1570759
KOZARIC, Edin (2024): “Are Muslim experiences taken seriously in theories of Islamophobia? A literature review of Muslim experiences with social exclusion in the West”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, nº 47 (5), pp. 907-940 https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2023.2268179
KRZYZANOWSKI, Michal (2013): “From Anti-Immigration and Nationalist Revisionism to Islamophobia: Continuities and Shifts in Recent Discourses and Patterns of Political Communication of the Freedom” en WODAK, Ruth, KHOSRAVINIK, Majid y MRAL, Brigitte: Right-Wing Populism in Europe: Politics and Discourse, London, Bloomsbury. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781472544940.ch-009
KUMAR, Deepa (2021): Islamophobia and the Politics of Empire, Verso.
LEAN, Nathan C. (2019): "The debate over the utility and precision of the term “Islamophobia”", en ZEMPI, Irene y AWAN, Imran (eds.): The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia, London and New York, Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351135559-2
LEMS, Johanna M. (2021): “Staying silent or speaking up: reactions to racialization affecting Muslims in Madrid”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, nº 44 (7), pp. 1192-1210. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2020.1779949
LEMS, Johanna M. (2023): “Islamofobia en España: actores y consecuencias”, en DIESTE MUÑOZ, Sonsoles y TENA SANZ, Eduardo (eds.): La derecha radical europea en la actualidad. Discurso de odio e islamofobia, Valencia, Tirant Lo Blanch.
LOPEZ BARGADOS, Alberto (2016): “La amenaza yihadista en España: viejos y nuevos orientalismos”, Revista de estudios internacionales mediterráneos, nº 21, pp. 73-80. https://doi.org/10.15366/reim2016.21.006
MASSOUMI, Narzanin et al. (2017): What is Islamophobia? Racism, Social Movements and the State, London, Pluto Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1rfsndp
MATEO DIESTE, Josep Lluís (2017): “Moros vienen” Historia y política de un estereotipo. Instituto de las Culturas
MEER, Nasar y MODOOD, Tariq (2019): “Islamophobia as the racialisation of Muslims” en ZEMPI, Irene y AWAN, Imran (eds.): The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia, London and New York, Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351135559-3
MENDES, Mariana S. y DENNISON, James (2020): “Explaining the emergence of the radical right in Spain and Portugal: salience, stigma and supply”, West European Politics, nº 44 (4), pp. 752-775. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2020.1777504
MODOOD, Tariq (1997): “Difference, Cultural Racism and Anti-racism” en WERBNER, Pnina y MODOOD, Tariq: Debating Cultural Identity, London, Zed Books
MODOOD, Tariq y WERBNER, Pnina (1997): The Politics of Multiculturalism in the New Europe. Racism, Identity and Community, Zed Books.
MODOOD, Tariq et al. (2006): Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship. A European Approach, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203001820
MODOOD, Tariq y SEALY, Thomas (2022): “Beyond Euro-Americancentric Forms of Racism and Anti-racism”, The Political Quarterly, nº 93 (3), pp. 433-441. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.13138
MODOOD, Tariq (2023): “Decolonising islamophobia: some misunderstandings”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, nº 46 (13), pp. 2893-2896. DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2023.2213304
MUDDE, Cas (2004): “The Populist Zeitgeist”, Government and Opposition, 39 (4), pp. 541-563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x
MUDDE, Cas (2007): Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511492037
MUDDE, Cas (2017): The Populist Radical Right. A Reader, London, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315514574
MUDDE, Cas (2021): La ultraderecha hoy, Barcelona, Paidós.
MÜLLER-URI, Fanny (2014): Antimuslimischer Rassismus, INTRO.
NORRIS, Pippa (2005): Radical Right: Voters and Parties in the Electoral Market, Cambridge, Cambridge Universtiy Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511615955
PARK, Jaihyun, FELIX, Karla y LEE, Grace (2007): “Implicit attitudes towards arab-muslims and the moderating effects of social information”, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, nº 29 (1), pp. 35-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01973530701330942
OLMOS-ALCARAZ, Antonia (2023): “Islamophobia and Twitter: The Political Discourse of the Extreme Right in Spain and Its Impact on the Public”, Religions, nº 14 (4): 506. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040506
OLSEN, Mette Christine Risom (2018): Playing the Gender Card: Femonationalism in Norwegian Immigration and Integration Discourse, Budapest, Central European University.
OPRATKO, Benjamin (2019): “Devils from our past: liberal Islamophobia in Austria as historicist racism”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 42 (16), pp. 159-176. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2019.1635258
RAHBARI, Ladan (2020): “When gender turns right: racializing Islam and femonationalism in online political discourses in Belgium”, Contemporary Politics, nº 27 (1), pp. 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2020.1813950
RODRÍGUEZ-CALLES, Luis y ESTRADA-VILLASEÑOR, Cecilia (2022): “La exclusión residencial de la población inmigrante: estudio de caso de Terrassa (Barcelona) y Torre-Pacheco (Murcia)”, Ciudad y Territorio, vol. 54, nº 213, pp. 621-640. https://doi.org/10.37230/CyTET.2022.213.6
RODRÍGUEZ JIMÉNEZ, José Luis (1992): La extrema derecha en España: del tardofranquismo a la consolidación de la democracia (1967-1982), Tesis, Madrid, Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
RODRÍGUEZ RECHE, Cristina y RODRÍGUEZ GARCÍA, Dani (2020): “El estigma de la musulmaneidad: visibilidad percibida y racismo en hijas de parejas mixtas con padre/madre de origen magrebí en Barcelona y Granada”, Perifèria: revista de recerca i formació en antropologia, vol. 25, nº 1, pp. 4-27.
ROSÓN LORENTE, Javier (2012): “Discrepancias en torno al uso del término islamofobia”, en GROSFOGUEL, Ramón y MARTÍN MUÑOZ, Gema (coords.): La islamofobia a debate. La genealogía del miedo al islam y la construcción de los discursos antiislámicos, Madrid, Biblioteca de Casa Árabe.
RUIZ OLABUÉNAGA, José Ignacio (2012): Metodología de la investigación cualitativa, Deusto.
RUNNYMEDE TRUST (1997): Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, London, Runnymede Trust.
SAYAN-CENGIZ, Feyda y TEKIN, Caner (2022): “Gender, Islam and nativism in populist radical-right posters: visualizing ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’”, Patterns of Prejudice, nº 56 (1), pp. 61-93. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2022.2115029
SCHMUCK, Desirée y MATTHES, Jörg (2019): “Voting “Against Islamization”? How Anti-Islamic Right-Wing, Populist Political Campaign Ads Influence Explicit and Implicit Attitudes Toward Muslims as Well as Voting Preferences”, Political Psychology, nº 40 (4), pp. 739-757. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pops.12557
SOLOMOS, John (2020): Routledge International Handbook of Contemporary Racisms, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351047326
STAKE, Robert E. (1998): Investigación con estudio de casos, Morata.
STOLCKE, Verena (1993): “El "problema" de la inmigración en Europa: El fundamentalismo cultural como nueva retórica de exclusión”, Mientras Tanto, nº 55, pp. 73-90.
TAGUIEFF, Pierre-André (2001): The Force of Prejudice. On Racism and Its Doubles, University of Minnesota Press.
TARAS, Raymond (2012): Xenophobia and Islamophobia in Europe, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780748654871
TURNBULL-DUGARTE, Stuart J., RAMA, José y SANTANA, Andrés (2020): “The Baskerville’s dog suddenly started barking: voting for VOX in the 2019 Spanish general elections”, Political Research Exchange, nº 2, 17811543.http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2474736X.2020.1781543
VELASCO DE CASTRO, Rocío (2014): “La imagen del ‘moro’ en la formulación e instrumentalización del africanismo franquista”, Hispania: Revista Española de Historia, vol. 74, nº 246, pp. 205-236. https://doi.org/10.3989/hispania.2014.008
WERBNER, Pnina (2005): “Islamophobia: Incitement to religious hatred – legislating for a new fear?”, Anthropology Today, nº 21 (1), pp. 5-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0268-540X.2005.00323.x
WODAK, Ruth (2009): Discoursive construction of national identity, Edinburgh University Press.
ZEMPI, Irene y AWAN, Imran (2019): The Routledge International Handbook of Islamophobia, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351135559
ZIA-EBRAHIMI, Reza (2018): “When the Elders of Zion relocated to Eurabia: conspiratorial racialization in antisemitism and Islamophobia”, Patterns of Prejudice, nº 52 (4), pp. 314-337. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2018.1493876
ZÚQUETE, José Pedro (2008): “The European extreme-right and Islam: New directions?”, Journal of Political Ideologies, nº 13 (3), pp. 321-344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13569310802377019