No. 44 (2020): Open Issue
Articles

The usefulness of a modern and dynamic national security perspective, in the fight against organized crime in Latin America

Mariano César Bartolomé
Universidad del Salvador
Bio
Published June 29, 2020

Keywords:

Citizen security, Latin America, national security, organized crime, public security
How to Cite
Bartolomé, M. C. (2020). The usefulness of a modern and dynamic national security perspective, in the fight against organized crime in Latin America. Relaciones Internacionales, (44), 45–61. https://doi.org/10.15366/relacionesinternacionales2020.44.003

Abstract

The main aim of the present article is to suggest the usefulness of a modern national security approach to analyze Latin American organized crime. This approach should transcend traditional public security perspectives to also incorporate broad and multi-causal explanations. The internal structure of the article includes an introduction, a main body and brief conclusions. First, from the point of view of citizen security, we will check some topics related to Latin American organized crime, focusing on three factors that increase and expand crime. Then we will analyze the current National Security concept, as a useful tool to be employed in the fight against this transnational threat. Finally, we will make a brief description of three regional cases where a modern national security perspective includes, as a relevant problem, organized crime.

The article is particularly relevant since the dimension reached by organized crime in Latin America is a cause for concern, particularly in its most relevant manifestation: drug trafficking. This is a highly complex process that includes the cultivation, manufacture, trafficking, wholesale and retail sales to final customers of illicit substances. Although there is a large bibliography that shows the size and complexity of this threat, its direct impact on the high levels of different types of violence should be highlighted.

Governments are making great efforts to neutralize this situation. Five years ago, the InterAmerican Development Bank reported that each year Latin American nations spend more than three percent of their Gross Domestic Product fighting against organized crime. But all those efforts have not yielded the expected results, as the Organization of American States concluded. The regional institution believes that without structural changes in current strategies against illegal drug trafficking, the general situation of the hemisphere will be worse in the medium term.

From this point of view, considering not only the complexity of the threat but also the poor results obtained in the fight against it, our proposal is to make a new approach to the issue, from a modern conception of national security. This conception must include the traditional perspectives of public security, and also broader approaches linked to citizen security.  Public security is a service provided by the state and basically refers to the prevention and suppression of crime, preserving and ensuring public order. Citizen security, on the other hand, has a direct link with the exercise of duties and rights, and social cohesion. In Latin America, the closest antecedent to current citizen security is the concept of “multidimensional security,” which was approved by the Organization of American States in 2003. Another antecedent is the concept of “human security,” which was conceived by the United Nations Development Program in 1994.

In terms of citizen security, insecurity and crime are not the effect of a single cause. Instead, they are the consequence of a combination of several factors (for example, dysfunctional families, social exclusion, environmental degradation, etc.). Citizen security proposes to combat them by applying public policies that include and articulate measures aimed at improving the social, political and economic situation.

A focus on organized crime in Latin America from the perspective of citizen security helps us to obtain a holistic framework on this topic, and to detect "key facilitators". In this sense, there are three main factors that show a direct influence on the spread and worsening of organized crime in Latin America. These factors are not limited to the level of public security, reaching the wide sphere of citizen security, and they are corruption, impunity and state weakness.

In a context of state weakness and insufficient "culture of legality", the public sector not only shows high permeability to criminal influence, but also tries to secure contacts and consolidate communication channels with illegal actors, closing covert agreements with them. This is the so-called "gray zone policy". In this kind of model of coexistence and interaction between legal institutions and criminal organizations, the latter helps the former to guarantee political control and stability. At the same time, legitimacy, impunity and even prestige are obtained in the political and social circles.

Impunity, which means "crime without punishment", is another important factor in the rise of organized crime in Latin America. It shows a direct link with other facilitators, especially corruption. Impunity has a direct influence on the perception of illegality and erodes citizens' trust in legal institutions and authorities.

Finally, the fragility of the state is another key factor strongly related to the increase of organized crime in Latin America, because illegal groups take advantage of every failure linked to governance. Perhaps the most common manifestation of the link between state fragility and organized crime is related to the state's inability to effectively control its territory. The specialist bibliography refers to these places as “stateless” or “black hole” sectors. This failure helps to consolidate the illegal actor, who becomes a "de facto" local political authority, deploying his activities in a highly autonomous way. Some investigations based on cases from Mexico and Brazil show that organized crime acts in this way not because it is concerned about people's well-being, but because it is a tool for social domination and, ultimately, for the accumulation of power.

As already mentioned, a modern conception of National Security could be an effective instrument to combat this transnational threat in Latin America. It allows the traditional perspectives of public security to be articulated with broader approaches to citizen security that focus on corruption, impunity and the fragility of the state. Today, national security includes a comprehensive approach to heterogeneous threats and risks and can be applied in the fight against organized crime. The case of Spain confirms this statement.

However, the success of this proposal is conditioned by the current perception of national security in the region and its evolution in the last forty years regarding the so-called "Doctrina de la Seguridad Nacional" (Doctrine of National Security). This concept refers to a kind of directive that was adopted by several Latin American governments, most of them authoritarian regimes, during the Cold War.

In recent years, there have been serious attempts to consolidate this modern approach in Latin America. In this sense, new laws and doctrines were implemented in Mexico, Guatemala and Argentina, with full respect for individual liberties and human rights. In those three countries, the state ratified its commitment to combat organized crime, and the topic was included in its national security documents.

The viability of these attempts in Latin America, and other initiatives that may be implemented in the future, are strongly conditioned by two factors: a real and true commitment by political elites to fight organized crime, and the definitive closure of the anachronistic Doctrina de la Seguridad Nacional, associated with the Cold War era.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Alcolea Navarro, D. (2012). Las nuevas estrategias de Defensa Nacional. Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos, Documento Opinión 68/2012. Recuperado de: http://www.ieee.es/Galerias/fichero/docs_opinion/2012/DIEEEO68-2012_NuevasEstrategiasDefensaNacional_D.AlcoleaNavarro.pdf (01.12.19).

Alda Mejías, S. (2016). El combate a la corrupción para combatir el crimen organizado. Real Instituto Elcano, Documento de Trabajo 6/16. Recuperado de: http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/rielcano_es/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/elcano/elcano_es/zonas_es/dt6-2016-aldamejias-combate-corrupcion-crimen-organizado (20.04.20).

Al da Mejías, S. (2017). Buen gobierno y cultura de la legalidad, componentes esenciales de las políticas de seguridad contra el crimen organizado. En Sampó, C. y Troncoso, V. (compiladoras). El Crimen Organizado en América Latina: Manifestaciones, Facilitadores y reacciones (pp. 123-153). Madrid: Instituto Universitario Gutiérrez Mellado.

Arriagada, I. (2003). Seguridad Ciudadana y violencia en América Latina. En Carrión F. (editor). Seguridad Ciudadana, ¿espejismo o realidad? (pp. 109-132). Quito: FLACSO.

Asuntos del Sur y Observatorio Latinoamericano de Política de Drogas y Opinión Pública (2015). Estudio anual sobre Políticas de Drogas y Opinión Pública en América Latina. Santiago de Chile: Asuntos del Sur & OPDOP.

Bartolomé, M. (2017). Las drogas ilegales, elemento central del crimen organizado en América Latina. En Sampó, C. y Troncoso, V. (compiladoras). El Crimen Organizado en América Latina: Manifestaciones, Facilitadores y reacciones (pp. 89-122). Madrid: Instituto Universitario Gutiérrez Mellado.

Bartolomé, M. (2019). Terrorismo y Crimen Organizado en Sudamérica. Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos, Documento de Investigación 02/19. Recuperado de: http://www.ieee.es/Galerias/fichero/docs_investig/2019/DIEEEINV02-2019TerrorismoSudamerica.pdf (10.12.2019).

Benítez Manaut, R. (2010). México: Seguridad Nacional, Defensa y Nuevos Desafíos. En Benítez Manaut, R. (coordinador). Seguridad y Defensa en América del Norte: nuevos dilemas geopolíticos (pp. 153-204). San Salvador: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars y Fundación Ungo.

Briscoe, I. (2007). Crimen y Droga en Estados Frágiles. Madrid: Fundación para las Relaciones Internacionales y el Diálogo Exterior (FRIDE).

Buscaglia, E. (2015). Lavado de dinero y corrupción. Ciudad de México: Debate.

Buvinic, M., Morrison, A. y Shifter, M. (2003). La violencia en América Latina y el Caribe. En Carrión, F. (editor). Seguridad Ciudadana, ¿espejismo o realidad? (pp. 59-107). Quito: FLACSO.

Cámara de Diputados del Honorable Congreso de la Nación (2019). Ley de Seguridad Nacional. Última reforma publicada DOF 08-11-2019. Honorable Congreso de la Nación, México, 8 de noviembre. Recuperado de: http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LSegNac_081119.pdf (13.12.19).

Carrión, F. (2003). De la violencia urbana a la convivencia ciudadana. En Carrión, F. (editor). Seguridad Ciudadana, ¿espejismo o realidad? (pp. 13-58). Quito: FLACSO.

Centro Nacional de Análisis y Documentación Judicial (2008). Ley Marco del Sistema Nacional de Seguridad. Decreto Número 18-2008. Guatemala: Ministerio de Gobernación. Recuperado de: https://mingob.gob.gt/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/ley_marco_d018-2008.pdf (13.12.19).

Cepik, M. y Borba, P. (2011). Crime Organizado, Estado e Segurança Internacional. Contexto Internacional, 33(2), 375-405. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-85292011000200005.

Cockayne, J. (2007). Transnational Organized Crime: Multilateral Responses to a Rising Threat. New York: International Peace Academy. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1008168

Curzio, L. (2007). La Seguridad Nacional en México y la relación con Estados Unidos. Ciudad de México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.

De La Corte Ibañez, L. y Giménez Salinas Framis, A. (2015). Crimen.Org. Barcelona: Ariel.

Departamento de Seguridad Nacional (2013). Estrategia de Seguridad Nacional 2013. Un proyecto compartido. Madrid: Presidencia del Gobierno, Gobierno de España.

Duncan, G. (2015). Plata o plomo. El poder político del narcotráfico en Colombia y México. Ciudad de México: Debate.

Enseñat y Berea, A. (2009). El concepto de Seguridad Nacional en las estrategias de Seguridad Nacional. En Centro Internacional de Toledo por la Paz (editor). Los Nuevos Paradigmas de la Seguridad (pp. 9-20). Madrid: Ministerio de Defensa y CITPax.

Farah, D. (2011). Terrorist-Criminal Pipelines and Criminalized States. Prism, 2(3), 5-32. Recuperado de: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26469129?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents (09.09.18).

Flores Pérez, C. (2009). El Estado en crisis: crimen organizado y política. Desafíos para la consolidación democrática. Ciudad de México: Publicaciones de la Casa Chata.

Forgione, F. (2010). Mafia Export. Barcelona: Anagrama.

Fuentes Vera, J. (2012). Hacia una política de Seguridad Nacional: elementos para la discusión. Política y Estrategia, 119, 91-130. DOI: 10.26797/rpye.v0i119.114.

García Gallegos, B. (2010). Doctrinas, actores e instituciones, perspectivas jurídicas en el tema de seguridad en América Latina. En Vargas Velázquez, A. (compilador). Seguridad en Democracia. Un reto a la violencia en América Latina (pp. 25-42). Buenos Aires: CLACSO.

Garzón, J. (2013). La Diáspora Criminal. La difusión transnacional del crimen organizado y cómo contener su expansión. En Garzón, J. y Olson, E. (compiladores). La Diáspora Criminal (pp. 1-26). Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center for Scholars.

Gurney, K. (21.10.2015). Why are the World's Most Violent Cities in Latin America? Insight Crime. Recuperado de: http://www.insightcrime.org/news-analysis/why-world-most-violent-cities-latin-america (22.04.20).

Herrera-Lasso, L. (2010). Inteligencia y Seguridad Nacional. Apuntes y reflexiones. En Alvarado, A. y Serrano, M. (coordinadores). Los grandes problemas de México. XV Seguridad Nacional y Seguridad Interior (pp. 191-226). Ciudad de México: El Colegio de México.

Instituto Igarapé (2019). Homicide Monitor. Recuperado de: https://homicide.igarape.org.br/ (20.12.19).

Jaitman, L. (2017). Los costos del crimen y de la violencia. Nueva evidencia y hallazgos en América Latina y el Caribe. Washington: Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo.

Jaramillo Jassir, M. (2015). El tránsito de la Seguridad Nacional a la ciudadana. Los retos de la descentralización en materia de seguridad ciudadana. Revista Criminalidad, 57(2), 287-299. Recuperado de: http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/crim/v57n2/v57n2a08.pdf (04.12.19).

Kupchan, Ch. (2010). How Enemies become Friends. The Sources of Stable Peace. Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt7s28g

Le Clerq, J. y Cháidez, A. (2018). Escenarios de impunidad en América Latina. En Gachúz Maya, J., Barana Castañeda, C. y Rodríguez Sánchez Lara, G. (coordinadores). Escenarios regionales contemporáneos (pp. 181-221). San Andrés Cholula: Universidad de las Américas Puebla.

Le Clerq, J. y Rodríguez Sánchez Lara, G. (2018). Dimensiones de la impunidad global. Índice Global de Impunidad 2017 (IGI-2017). San Andrés Cholula: Fundación Universidad de las Américas Puebla.

Leal Buitrago, F. (2003). La Doctrina de Seguridad Nacional: Materialización de la Guerra Fría en América del Sur. Revista de Estudios Sociales, 15, 74-87. Recuperado de: https://revistas.uniandes.edu.co/doi/pdf/10.7440/res15.2003.05 (29.10.19). https://doi.org/10.7440/res15.2003.05

Lizarazo Vargas, N. (2010). Seguridad Ciudadana: policía para la democracia. En Vargas Velázquez, A. (compilador). Seguridad en Democracia. Un reto a la violencia en América Latina (pp. 69-88). Buenos Aires: CLACSO.

Miklaucic, M. y Naím, M. (2013). The Criminal State. En Miklaucic, M., Brewer, J. y Barnabo, G. (compiladores). Convergence. Illicit Networks and National Security in Age of Globalization (pp. 149-170). Washington: National Defense University Press. https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA590461

Morales Rins, J. (2018). Argentina: Estrategia de Seguridad Nacional y roles de las Fuerzas Armadas. Revista de Estudios en Seguridad Internacional, 4(1), 73-88. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18847/1.7.5.

Naim, M. (2012). Mafia States. Organized Crime Takes Office. Foreign Affairs, 91(3), 100-111.

Organización de Estados Americanos (2013). El problema de las drogas en las Américas. Washington: Organización de Estados Americanos.

Orozco, G. (2006). El concepto de Seguridad en la Teoría de las Relaciones Internacionales. Revista CIDOB d'Afers internacionals, 72, 161-180. Recuperado de: https://www.cidob.org/es/articulos/revista_cidob_d_afers_internacionals/el_concepto_de_la_seguridad_en_la_teoria_de_las_relaciones_internacionales (11.11.19).

Perez Gil, L. (2012). Elementos para una Teoría de la Política Exterior. Valencia: Tirant Lo Blanch.

Rico, J. y Chinchilla, L. (2002). Seguridad Ciudadana en América Latina. Ciudad de México: Siglo XXI Editores.

Rodríguez Sánchez Lara, G. (2017). Seguridad Nacional en México y sus problemas estructurales. San Andrés Cholula: Fundación Universidad de las Américas Puebla.

Rojas Aravena, F. (2008). Mayor presencia del crimen organizado: consecuencia de las crisis de gobernabilidad y el débil imperio de la ley. En Solís, L. y Rojas Aravena, F. (editores). Crimen organizado en América Latina y el Caribe (pp. 95-107). Santiago de Chile: Catalonia.

Ruggiero, V. (2009). La Violencia Política. Barcelona: Antrophos.

Sampó, C. (2018). Vivir entre maras y grupos de exterminio: una aproximación a los más graves problemas de seguridad pública en El Salvador. En Correa Vera, L. (compiladora). Sociedad, Seguridad y Conflicto en América Latina (pp. 95-108). San Salvador: Editorial SIEC.

Sansó-Rubert Pascual, D. (2017). Democracias bajo presión. Madrid: Dykinson. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1zgwjcr

Schultze-Kraft, M. (2016). Órdenes Crimilegales: repensando el poder político del crimen organizado. Iconos, 55, 25-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17141/iconos.55.2016.1899.

Secretaría De Asuntos Estratégicos (2019). Estrategia de Seguridad Nacional. Buenos Aires: Presidencia de la Nación, República Argentina.

Sistema Nacional de Inteligencia (2018). Agenda Nacional de Riesgos y Amenazas. Recuperado de: https://www.sie.gob.gt/portal/images/DocumentosVarios/anra/2018_ANRA.pdf (17.12.19).

Smith, B. (2016). Public Drug Policy and Grey Zone Pacts in México, 1920-1980. En Caiuby Labate, B., Cavnar, C. y Rodrigues, T. (editores). Drug Policies and the Politics of Drugs in the Americas (pp. 33-52). Switzerland: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29082-9_3

Szabo, I., Garzón, J. y Muggah, R. (2013). Violencia, drogas y armas. ¿Otro futuro posible? Instituto Igarapé, Nota Estratégica 8. Recuperado de: https://igarape.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/NE-08-Violencia-drogas-y-armas.pdf (15.04.20).

Velásquez Rivera, É. (2002). Historia de la Doctrina de la Seguridad Nacional. Convergencia, 27, 11-39. Recuperado de: https://convergencia.uaemex.mx/article/view/1723/1304 (11.11.19).

Wainwright, T. (2018). Narconomics. Barcelona: Debate.