POLITICS OF SHARIA IN NIGERIA’S “FAR NORTH” AND THE FALLACY OF “SECULARITY PRINCIPLE OF STATE”
Mots-clés :
, Africa, Africans, multi-religiously and multi-ethnic segmented society, Nigeria’s Far North, principle of secularity of state, Sharia lawRésumé
Sharia had been an age-long practice in Nigeria’s twelve states of the “Far North”. But since the country’s return to democratic rule in 1999, the controversy surrounding sharia practice became violent because of the introduction of Sharia law by the twelve state governments. What became “the politics of Sharia” was considered as a breach of the secularity principle of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution (as amended). The non-Muslims’ opposition against the introduction of sharia law was premised on Section 10 of the constitution. However, the pro-sharia Muslims considered Sharia as the ideal of political governance pointing to Section 38, sub-sections 1, 2 and 3. The use of sharia practice to ventilate political interests could best be explained by religious mobilization theory, using historical and descriptive method. Despite the aversion for “secularity principle of state” by the Nigeria’s Far Northern political elite, the study recommends this principle as ideal formula for conflict regulation in deeply divided societies like Nigeria.
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Références
Abikan, A. I. (2002) "The Application of Islamic Law in Civil Causes in Nigerian Courts", Journal of International and Comparative Law, 6, pp. 88-115.
Adekanye, J. (2008) Military Organisation in Multi-Ethnically Segmented Societies, Ibadan, Nigeria, Ababa Press Ltd.
Agrama, H. A. (2010) "Secularism, Sovereignty, Indeterminacy: Is Egypt a Secular or a Religious State?", Comparative Studies in Society & History, 52, 3, pp. 495-523. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417510000289
Al-Marayati, A. (1972) The Middle East: Its Governments and Politics, Belmont, Duxbury Press.
Angerbrandt, H. (2011) "Political Decentralization and Conflict: The Sharia Crisis in Kaduna, Nigeria", Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 29, 1, pp. 15-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589001.2011.533057
An-Naim, A. A. (2005) "The future of Shariah and the debate in Northern Nigeria", in Ostien, P., Nasir, J. M. and Kogelmann, F. (eds.), Comparative Perspectives on Shariah in Nigeria, Ibadan, Nigeria, Spectrum Books Limited, pp. 327-357.
Alao, E. O. (2016) Sharia Law, Sectarian Conflicts, National Security: Case Study of Kaduna State, Nigeria, 1999-2010, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis of the Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Boer, H. J. (2004) Christian: Why This Muslim Violence?, Vol. 3, Ontario, Canada, Essence Publishing.
Boer, H. J. (2005) Muslim: Why We Reject Secularism?, Vol. 4, Ontario, Canada, Essence Publishing.
Boer, H. J. (2006) Christians: Secularism-Yes and No, Vol. 5, Ontario, Canada, Essence Publishing.
Boer, H. J. (2008) Christians: Why We Reject Muslim Law, Vol. 7. Ontario, Canada, Essence Publishing.
Cassey, C. (2008) "Marginal Muslims: Politics and the Perpetual Bounds of Islamic Authenticity in Northern Nigeria", Africa Today, 54, 3, pp. 67-92. https://doi.org/10.2979/AFT.2008.54.3.66
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999, (Online document).
Enayat, H. (1982) Modern Islamic Political Thought, London, Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-16765-4
Holyoake, G. J. (2013) The Principles of Secularism (3rd ed.), London, Book Store, Austin & Co.
Human Rights Watch Report "The Miss World Riots": Continued Impunity for Killings in Kaduna, Vol.15, No. 13 (A), 2003 (Online document).
Ibrahim, O. F. (1997) "Religion and Politics: A View from the North", in Diamond, L., Kirk-Greene, A. & Oyediran, O. (eds), Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida, Ibadan, Nigeria, Vantage Publishers, pp. 508-534.
Igbohin, B. O. (2010) "'The President of Nigeria Has No Final Say': Sharia: Law Controversies and Implications for Nigeria", Politics and Religion, 8, 2, pp. 265-290.
International Crisis Group: Africa Report No.168: 20 December, Northern Nigeria: Background to Conflict, 2010 (Online document).
Iwobi, A. U. (2004) "Tiptoeing through a Constitutional Minefield: The Great Sharia Controversy in Nigeria", Journal of African Law, 48, 2, pp. 111-164. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021855304482023
Karaman, L. M. (2004) "Religion, Politics and Mobilization: A Theoretical Perspective with a special note on "the Indian Khilafat Movement", Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations, 3, 1, pp. 36-55.
Laitin, D. D. (1982) "The Sharia Debate and the Origins of Nigeria's Second Republic", The Journal of Modem African Studies, 20, 3, pp. 411-30. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X00056901
Mahdi, H. (2006) "Sharia in Nigeria: A Reflection on the Debates". Paper presented for A World in Transition: New Challenges for Gender Justice, Indian International Centre, New Delhi, 13-15 December.
Maier, K. (2000) This House Has Fallen: Midnight in Nigeria, New York, Public Affairs.
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Mckay, J. P., Hill, B. D. & Buckler, J. (2006) A History of Western Society (8th ed.), USA, Houghton Mifflin Company.
Nasir, J. M. (2005) "Commentary on John Reitz's "Freedom of Religion and Its Limitations: Judicial Standards for Deciding Particular Cases to Maintain the State's Secular Role in Protecting Society's Religious Commitments", in Ostien, P., Nasir, J. M. and Kogelmann, F., Comparative Perspectives on Shariah in Nigeria, Ibadan, Nigeria, Spectrum Books Limited, pp. 327-357.
Nmehielle, V. O. (2004) "Sharia Law in the Northern States of Nigeria: To implement or Not to implement the Constitutionality is the Question", Human Rights Quarterly, 26, 3, pp. 730-759. https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2004.0039
Oba, A. A. (2002) "Islamic Law as Customary Law: The Changing Perspective in Nigeria", The International Comparative Law Quarterly, 51, 4, pp. 817-850. https://doi.org/10.1093/iclq/51.4.817
Odeh, L. E. (2010) "The Resurgence of Sharia in Contemporary Nigeria, 1999-2000", Benue Valley Journal of Humanities, 9, 1&2, pp.1-15
Ogbu, O. N. (2014) "Is Nigeria a Secular State? Law, Human Rights & Religion in Context", The Transitional Human Rights Review, 1, pp. 135-178.
Okeke, G. (2013) "The Ambivalence of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution in Matters Relating Secularism: A case for Constitutional Review", International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Intervention, 2, 31, pp. 65-69.
Oraegbunam, K. E. I. (2014) "Sharia Criminal Law and State Secularity Principle in Nigeria: Implications of Section 10 of 1999 Constitution (As Amended)", Journal of Law, Policy and Globalisation, 28, pp. 39-54.
Ostien, P. (2007) Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria, 1999-2006: A Sourcebook, Vol. 1. Ibadan, Spectrum Books Limited.
Otto, J. M. (2008) Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries, Amsterdam, Leiden University Press.
Smith, D. E. (1970) Religion and Political Development, Boston, Little, Brown.
Suberu, R. (1997) "Religion and Politics: A View from the South", in Diamond, Larry, Kirk-Greene, A. & Oyediran, O. (eds.), Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida, Ibadan, Nigeria, Vantage Publishers, pp. 477-508.
The Holy Quran
Tibi, B. (1984) "The Renewed Role of Islam in the Political and Social Development of the Middle East", The Middle East Journal, 37, 1, pp. 3-13.
Toprak (Sayarı), B. (1984) "Politicisation of Islam in a Secular State: the National Salvation Party in Turkey," in S. A. Arjomand (ed.), From Nationalism to Revolutionary Islam. London: Macmillan, pp.119-133 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-06847-0_6
Yadudu, H. (1991) "Constitution-making and the politicisation of Shari'a in Nigeria", Journal of Islamic and Comparative Law, p.18
Yelwa, M. I. & Adams, I. (2014) "Chronicles of Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria: A Critical Appraisal", International Journal of Innovation Social Science & Humanities Research, 2, 4, pp. 75-86.
Abikan, A. I. (2002) "The Application of Islamic Law in Civil Causes in Nigerian Courts", Journal of International and Comparative Law, 6, pp. 88-115.
Adekanye, J. (2008) Military Organisation in Multi-Ethnically Segmented Societies, Ibadan, Nigeria, Ababa Press Ltd.
Agrama, H. A. (2010) "Secularism, Sovereignty, Indeterminacy: Is Egypt a Secular or a Religious State?", Comparative Studies in Society & History, 52, 3, pp. 495-523. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0010417510000289
Al-Marayati, A. (1972) The Middle East: Its Governments and Politics, Belmont, Duxbury Press.
Angerbrandt, H. (2011) "Political Decentralization and Conflict: The Sharia Crisis in Kaduna, Nigeria", Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 29, 1, pp. 15-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589001.2011.533057
An-Naim, A. A. (2005) "The future of Shariah and the debate in Northern Nigeria", in Ostien, P., Nasir, J. M. and Kogelmann, F. (eds.), Comparative Perspectives on Shariah in Nigeria, Ibadan, Nigeria, Spectrum Books Limited, pp. 327-357.
Alao, E. O. (2016) Sharia Law, Sectarian Conflicts, National Security: Case Study of Kaduna State, Nigeria, 1999-2010, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis of the Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Boer, H. J. (2004) Christian: Why This Muslim Violence?, Vol. 3, Ontario, Canada, Essence Publishing.
Boer, H. J. (2005) Muslim: Why We Reject Secularism?, Vol. 4, Ontario, Canada, Essence Publishing.
Boer, H. J. (2006) Christians: Secularism-Yes and No, Vol. 5, Ontario, Canada, Essence Publishing.
Boer, H. J. (2008) Christians: Why We Reject Muslim Law, Vol. 7. Ontario, Canada, Essence Publishing.
Cassey, C. (2008) "Marginal Muslims: Politics and the Perpetual Bounds of Islamic Authenticity in Northern Nigeria", Africa Today, 54, 3, pp. 67-92. https://doi.org/10.2979/AFT.2008.54.3.66
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999, (Online document).
Enayat, H. (1982) Modern Islamic Political Thought, London, Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-16765-4
Holyoake, G. J. (2013) The Principles of Secularism (3rd ed.), London, Book Store, Austin & Co.
Human Rights Watch Report "The Miss World Riots": Continued Impunity for Killings in Kaduna, Vol.15, No. 13 (A), 2003 (Online document).
Ibrahim, O. F. (1997) "Religion and Politics: A View from the North", in Diamond, L., Kirk-Greene, A. & Oyediran, O. (eds), Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida, Ibadan, Nigeria, Vantage Publishers, pp. 508-534.
Igbohin, B. O. (2010) "'The President of Nigeria Has No Final Say': Sharia: Law Controversies and Implications for Nigeria", Politics and Religion, 8, 2, pp. 265-290.
International Crisis Group: Africa Report No.168: 20 December, Northern Nigeria: Background to Conflict, 2010 (Online document).
Iwobi, A. U. (2004) "Tiptoeing through a Constitutional Minefield: The Great Sharia Controversy in Nigeria", Journal of African Law, 48, 2, pp. 111-164. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021855304482023
Karaman, L. M. (2004) "Religion, Politics and Mobilization: A Theoretical Perspective with a special note on "the Indian Khilafat Movement", Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations, 3, 1, pp. 36-55.
Laitin, D. D. (1982) "The Sharia Debate and the Origins of Nigeria's Second Republic", The Journal of Modem African Studies, 20, 3, pp. 411-30. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X00056901
Mahdi, H. (2006) "Sharia in Nigeria: A Reflection on the Debates". Paper presented for A World in Transition: New Challenges for Gender Justice, Indian International Centre, New Delhi, 13-15 December.
Maier, K. (2000) This House Has Fallen: Midnight in Nigeria, New York, Public Affairs.
Maupin, L. & Jefferson, T. "Sharia Law" in PBS NewsHour Extra, 2011 on web
http//www.pbs.org/newshourextra/teachers/lessonplans/worldsharia 9-29 html (accessed on October 16, 2015).
Mckay, J. P., Hill, B. D. & Buckler, J. (2006) A History of Western Society (8th ed.), USA, Houghton Mifflin Company.
Nasir, J. M. (2005) "Commentary on John Reitz's "Freedom of Religion and Its Limitations: Judicial Standards for Deciding Particular Cases to Maintain the State's Secular Role in Protecting Society's Religious Commitments", in Ostien, P., Nasir, J. M. and Kogelmann, F., Comparative Perspectives on Shariah in Nigeria, Ibadan, Nigeria, Spectrum Books Limited, pp. 327-357.
Nmehielle, V. O. (2004) "Sharia Law in the Northern States of Nigeria: To implement or Not to implement the Constitutionality is the Question", Human Rights Quarterly, 26, 3, pp. 730-759. https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2004.0039
Oba, A. A. (2002) "Islamic Law as Customary Law: The Changing Perspective in Nigeria", The International Comparative Law Quarterly, 51, 4, pp. 817-850. https://doi.org/10.1093/iclq/51.4.817
Odeh, L. E. (2010) "The Resurgence of Sharia in Contemporary Nigeria, 1999-2000", Benue Valley Journal of Humanities, 9, 1&2, pp.1-15
Ogbu, O. N. (2014) "Is Nigeria a Secular State? Law, Human Rights & Religion in Context", The Transitional Human Rights Review, 1, pp. 135-178.
Okeke, G. (2013) "The Ambivalence of the 1999 Nigerian Constitution in Matters Relating Secularism: A case for Constitutional Review", International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Intervention, 2, 31, pp. 65-69.
Oraegbunam, K. E. I. (2014) "Sharia Criminal Law and State Secularity Principle in Nigeria: Implications of Section 10 of 1999 Constitution (As Amended)", Journal of Law, Policy and Globalisation, 28, pp. 39-54.
Ostien, P. (2007) Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria, 1999-2006: A Sourcebook, Vol. 1. Ibadan, Spectrum Books Limited.
Otto, J. M. (2008) Sharia and National Law in Muslim Countries, Amsterdam, Leiden University Press.
Smith, D. E. (1970) Religion and Political Development, Boston, Little, Brown.
Suberu, R. (1997) "Religion and Politics: A View from the South", in Diamond, Larry, Kirk-Greene, A. & Oyediran, O. (eds.), Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida, Ibadan, Nigeria, Vantage Publishers, pp. 477-508.
The Holy Quran
Tibi, B. (1984) "The Renewed Role of Islam in the Political and Social Development of the Middle East", The Middle East Journal, 37, 1, pp. 3-13.
Toprak (Sayarı), B. (1984) "Politicisation of Islam in a Secular State: the National Salvation Party in Turkey," in S. A. Arjomand (ed.), From Nationalism to Revolutionary Islam. London: Macmillan, pp.119-133 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-06847-0_6
Yadudu, H. (1991) "Constitution-making and the politicisation of Shari'a in Nigeria", Journal of Islamic and Comparative Law, p.18
Yelwa, M. I. & Adams, I. (2014) "Chronicles of Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria: A Critical Appraisal", International Journal of Innovation Social Science & Humanities Research, 2, 4, pp. 75-86.